Most people will have encountered the phrase “beauty is in the eye of the beholder,” which suggests that what is considered tasteful or beautiful varies according to the individual; indeed, even a cursory look at, say, beauty standards in cultures across the world is enough to back up this statement.
As a branch of Western philosophy, aesthetics is concerned with the nature of beauty and taste. In Japan, aesthetics were not formalised as a philosophical discipline in the same way until the nineteenth century; rather, aesthetic ideas arose in the course of various artistic and literary traditions, and were expressed in fields from painting and folk arts to traditional crafts and strolling gardens. Each of these concepts have merited entire treatises and books, but this overview of the most prevalent ones is a reasonable starting point in appreciating traditional Japanese arts and crafts.
Many of these (interrelated) concepts arise from a strongly Buddhist worldview that accepts, occasionally laments, but more often celebrates the impermanence of existence. The only constant is change; let us feel gratitude for the present moment. This inherent romance underpinning these aesthetic ideals in part accounts for the unfortunate tendency (of both Japanese and non-Japanese people) to romanticise Japanese culture. That being said, these ideals are an integral part of daily life in Japan, and once you’re familiar with them, they’re easily identifiable across many aspects of Japanese culture.
Mono no Aware
Originating from Heian period literature, “mono no aware” is variously translated as “the pathos of things,” “an empathy towards things," and “a sensitivity to ephemera.” The idiom expresses an acceptance of the inevitable transience of things; a commonly cited example is cherry blossoms in bloom, where their fleeting nature heightens one’s appreciation of their beauty. Other qualities associated with “mono no aware” include wistfulness and gentle melancholy. Idioms from other cultures share similar (if not identical) appreciation for the ephemerality of the human condition; one example is “this too shall pass,” an idiom of Persian origin. “Mono no aware” may, however, be more strongly associated with aesthetics in Japanese daily life than elsewhere.
Miyabi
“Miyabi” is derived from the verb “miyabu,” which means “to act properly.” In its noun form, it came to refer to the elegant aesthetics of the imperial Heian court in terms of physical refinement, courtliness and manners, and the beauty of its romantic relationships. “Miyabi” expresses a sensitivity to beauty, and is closely connected to “mono no aware” in its appreciation for the beauty in transient things.
However, the ideal of “miyabi” demanded a complete elimination of anything perceived as vulgar, rough, or crude. It is thus unsurprising that adhering to this ideal limited full creative expression in art and poetry during the Heian period, since many ideas or metaphors associated with the lower class were de facto off-limits. (How classist!)
Fun fact: According to Tabelog, there appear to be at least 100 restaurants in the entire Tokyo area with “miyabi” in their name.
Wabi, Sabi, and Wabi-Sabi
Derived from the verb “wabu” (to languish) and the adjective “wabishii” (spiritual loneliness), “wabi” may today be translated as “subdued, austere beauty.” Its original connotations changed over time to that of an aesthetic that finds beauty and significance in the humble and the commonplace, and it was especially prevalent in arts connected with the practice of tea during the 16th century. “Sabi” can be translated as “rustic patina,” and is an aesthetic that values the passage of time, stillness, and solitude.
Both terms had overlapping meanings, and neither were truly influential aesthetics on their own until they were unified into “wabi-sabi,” an aesthetic that valued the imperfect, impermanent, and incomplete. Zen philosophy outlines seven aesthetic principles for achieving wabi-sabi:
Fukinsei: Asymmetry or irregularity;
Kanso: Simplicity;
Koko: Basic, weathered;
Shizen: Without pretense, as natural as human behaviour;
Yūgen: Subtly profound grace;
Datsuzoku: Free, unbounded by convention;
Seijaku: Tranquility, silence.
It is important to note that like all aesthetics, the appeal of wabi/wabi-sabi waxed and waned throughout history, which I have addressed briefly in a previous essay on Shigaraki ceramics. In brief, the “wabi-cha” style of tea was only popular for around a century; by the second quarter of the 17th century, it had become thoroughly unfashionable, with the rustic tea practitioner being lampooned by society. The “kirei-sabi” (elegant, refined rusticity) aesthetic championed by tea master Kobori Enshū (1579-1647) took its place; later on, “iki” (described below) became the mainstream aesthetic during the Edo period. The wabi-sabi aesthetic enjoyed a resurgence in the late 1960s and early 1970s; thus far, interest in it has not yet waned.
Iki
“Iki” means “spirit” or “life.” This aesthetic arose during the late 18th and 19th century among the Edo merchant class, and roughly corresponds to what we might think of as “cool” or “chic” today. Key to “iki” is a certain nonchalance and lack of self-consciousness — it should seem effortless and natural, even if it is in fact quite calculated. Literary critic Makoto Ueda describes the aesthetic of iki as an urbane, chic beauty with undertones of sensuality; in a moral sense, iki referred to a person who enjoyed sensual pleasures but was never carried away by them.
Yūgen
Out of abstruse Japanese aesthetic concepts, Yūgen may be the most ineffable of them all. It originally meant “dim,” “deep,” and “mysterious,” but has also been translated as “subtly profound” or “mysteriously profound.” Some describe the idea as suggestiveness, or a lingering memory or aftertaste — for example, the ripples left by some mysterious creature in a pond. Appreciating and identifying yūgen demands a more active participation in the artwork (or subject) in front of us by imagining its hidden depths.
Writers through the ages have characterised yūgen in various ways. For instance, Yoshida Kenko (1283-1350) thought of yūgen as an elegant motion, a stifling of chromatic intensity, a feeling that could not be put into words. Noh dramatist and creator Zeami Motokiyo (1363-1459) often described yūgen in natural metaphors, such as the following:
“To watch the sun sink behind a flower-clad hill. To wander on in a huge forest without thought of return. To stand upon the shore and gaze after a boat that disappears behind distant islands. To contemplate the flight of wild geese seen and lost among the clouds. And, subtle shadows of bamboo on bamboo.”
Shibui
The term “shibui” originated in the late 14th century as “shibushi.” “Shibusa” is the noun form of the idea. Shibui originally described an astringent taste, such as an unripe persimmon; imagine eating a dozen unripe bananas at the same time, with a sensation that turns your tongue to fuzz. However, it is now used to describe a far greater variety of subjects beyond fruits, art, or fashion.
“Shibui” can evoke some or all of the following qualities: subtlety, complexity, elegance, restraint, understatedness, maturity, sophistication, spontaneity, naturalness, imperfection, everydayness. It is usually a compliment, but one that is tricky for most people to fully explain. Shibui could refer to the patina on a teapot. Or, it might suggest an acquired taste, typically in opposition to what is modern and “normal.” For example, people who enjoy enka (old-fashioned sentimental ballads), olives, bittergourd, or ika no shiokara (squid fermented in its own guts) might be considered shibui — implying that they are a person of taste and sophistication.
Kawaii
Kawaii literally means “cute” or “adorable.” It’s an adjective, but also an aesthetic, and prominent cultural phenomenon in its own right. While the idea can be traced back to Sei Shōnagon’s The Pillow Book, in which the author describes cute objects in a section called “Pretty things,” kawaii culture as we know it began taking shape around the 1970s. Hello Kitty was created in 1974, as were many other cute characters in manga and anime.
As an aesthetic, kawaii can be characterised by soft colours, rounded shapes, and features that evoke innocence and vulnerability; these are features that are typically associated with young girls, and as such, kawaii tends to be associated with girlishness. But kawaii can be widely applied. Naturally, cats are kawaii, as are lapdogs and other tiny animals with big eyes (like the Ezo momonga above).
"Kimo-kawaii," or “creepy cute,” is another variant on kawaii, combining the terms “kimochi warui” (gross) and “kawaii.” It emerged in the 1990s as a countercultural response to the dominant kawaii aesthetic, incorporating stylistic elements of horror and macabre, as well as darker themes and colours. "Guro-kawaii" or “grotesque cute,” takes this idea a little further, even incorporating violence and gore. Examples might include brain and eyeball decorations (pop idol Kyary Pamyu Pamyu’s music videos come to mind), or murderous but cute teddy bears.
Written by Florentyna Leow